Subject (Latin ''subiectus'' "lying beneath") may refer to:

Philosophy

''Hypokeimenon'' or ''subiectum'', in metaphysics, the essential being of a thing

*Subject (philosophy), a being which has subjective experiences, subjective consciousness or a relationship with another entity

*Subject-object problem, the issue of how actors or observers relate to things which are observed or acted upon

*Subject-object based metaphysics, a term for the dominant view of metaphysics in Western philosophy

Grammar

in general use, any topic currently under consideration, see subject matter:

*Subject (grammar), one of two main constituent parts of a sentence

*Subject case or nominative case, the grammatical case for a noun

*Subject term or index term, descriptor of a document used in bibliographic records

Course (education), a unit of academic instruction

Research subject, an entity observed for purposes of research

in computing:

*Subjects (programming), core elements in the subject-oriented programming paradigm

*Subject (access control)

*Subject, an element in the Resource Description Framework

in musicology, the first melodic fragment of a fugue

People

A subject is an individual subjected to the rule by an elite, see feudalism

subjects in medieval feudalism, see Commoners

subjects in the modern constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, see British subject

Others

''Subject'' as a title or proper noun

''Subject'' (album) a 2003 album by Dwele

See also

Subject matter (disambiguation)

Subjective (disambiguation)

cs:Subjekt da:Subjekt de:Subjekt et:Subjekt es:Sujeto fa:فاعل fr:Sujet it:Soggetto lt:Subjektas nl:Onderwerp ja:主体 no:Subjekt ru:Субъект sq:Subjekti sk:Subjekt fi:Subjekti sv:Subjekt uk:Суб'єкт

name	Shōji Meguro
background	non_performing_personnel
born	June 04, 1971Tokyo, Japan
instrument	Keyboard, electronic organ, guitar, trombone
genre	Rock
occupation	Composer, video game director
years active	1995–present
label	}}

is a Japanese video game composer and director who joined Atlus in 1996 and has composed music for many of their games, mainly those in the ''Megami Tensei'' series.

Biography

Born in Tokyo, Japan, Shōji Meguro majored in hydrodynamics at the College of Industrial Technology at Nihon University.

Musical style and influences

Although his works feature a signature rock style, Meguro experiments with different musical genres, such as orchestral, electronica, jazz, rap, RnB and hip hop from soundtrack to soundtrack. Meguro cites T-Square, Casiopea, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky as musical influences.

Discography

References

Category:1971 births Category:Japanese composers Category:Living people Category:People from Tokyo Category:Video game composers Category:Nihon University alumni

es:Shōji Meguro it:Shoji Meguro hu:Meguro Sódzsi ms:Shoji Meguro ja:目黒将司

Jeff Greason is a founder of XCOR Aerospace, the Commercial Spaceflight Federation (formerly Personal Spaceflight Federation), was the team lead at Rotary Rocket for engine development, and previously worked at Intel.

In May 2009 Greason was named a member of the Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee an independent review requested by the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) on May 7, 2009.

External links

Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee website

XCOR official bio

Category:Living people

Name	Roger Penrose
Birth date	August 08, 1931
Birth place	Colchester, Essex, England
Residence	United Kingdom Canada (During WWII)
Nationality	British
Fields	Mathematical physicsMathematical sciences
Workplaces	Bedford College, London St John's College, Cambridge Princeton University Syracuse University King’s College, London Birkbeck, University of London University of Oxford
Alma mater	University of Cambridge University College London University College School
Doctoral advisor	John A. Todd
Academic advisors	William Hodge
Doctoral students	Tristan NeedhamRichard JozsaRichard S. WardAndrew HodgesAsghar QadirGeorge Burnett-StuartMatthew GinsbergAdam HelferLane P. HughstonPeter LawClaude LeBrunRoss MooreDuncan StoneTim PostonGeorge SparlingK. Paul Tod
Known for	Twistor theoryGeometry of spacetime Cosmic censorshipWeyl curvature hypothesisPenrose inequalitiesPenrose interpretation of Quantum TheoryOrch-OR Moore–Penrose pseudoinverseNewman-Penrose formalismPenrose tilingPenrose stairsPenrose graphical notation
Influences	Dennis W. Sciama
Influenced	Michael Atiyah Stuart Hameroff
Awards	Wolf Prize (1988) Dirac Medal (1989) Copley Medal (2008)
Religion	Materialist Platonist with no doctrinal stance
Footnotes	He is the brother of Jonathan Penrose and Oliver Penrose, and son of Lionel Penrose. He is the nephew of Roland Penrose. }}

Sir Roger Penrose OM FRS (born 8 August 1931) is an English mathematical physicist and Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford and Emeritus Fellow of Wadham College. He has received a number of prizes and awards, including the 1988 Wolf Prize for physics which he shared with Stephen Hawking for their contribution to our understanding of the universe. He is renowned for his work in mathematical physics, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher.

Career

Born in Colchester, Essex, England, Roger Penrose is a son of Lionel S. Penrose and Margaret Leathes. Penrose is the brother of mathematician Oliver Penrose and of chess Grandmaster Jonathan Penrose. Penrose attended University College School and University College, London, where he graduated with a first class degree in mathematics. In 1955, while still a student, Penrose reintroduced the E. H. Moore generalized matrix inverse (also known as Moore–Penrose inverse after it had been reinvented by Arne Bjerhammar (1951). Penrose earned his Ph.D. at Cambridge (St John's College) in 1958, writing a thesis on "tensor methods in algebraic geometry" under algebraist and geometer John A. Todd. He devised and popularised the Penrose triangle in the 1950s, describing it as "impossibility in its purest form" and exchanged material with the artist M. C. Escher, whose earlier depictions of impossible objects partly inspired it. Escher's Waterfall, and Ascending and Descending were in turn inspired by Penrose. As reviewer Manjit Kumar puts it:

As a student in 1954, Penrose was attending a conference in Amsterdam when by chance he came across an exhibition of Escher's work. Soon he was trying to conjure up impossible figures of his own and discovered the tri-bar – a triangle that looks like a real, solid three-dimensional object, but isn't. Together with his father, a physicist and mathematician, Penrose went on to design a staircase that simultaneously loops up and down. An article followed and a copy was sent to Escher. Completing a cyclical flow of creativity, the Dutch master of geometrical illusions was inspired to produce his two masterpieces.

In 1965, at Cambridge, Penrose proved that singularities (such as black holes) could be formed from the gravitational collapse of immense, dying stars.

In 1967, Penrose invented the twistor theory which maps geometric objects in Minkowski space into the 4-dimensional complex space with the metric signature (2,2). In 1969, he conjectured the cosmic censorship hypothesis. This proposes (rather informally) that the universe protects us from the inherent unpredictability of singularities (such as the one in the centre of a black hole) by hiding them from our view behind an event horizon. This form is now known as the "weak censorship hypothesis"; in 1979, Penrose formulated a stronger version called the "strong censorship hypothesis". Together with the BKL conjecture and issues of nonlinear stability, settling the censorship conjectures is one of the most important outstanding problems in general relativity. Also from 1979 dates Penrose's influential Weyl curvature hypothesis on the initial conditions of the observable part of the Universe and the origin of the second law of thermodynamics. Penrose and James Terrell independently realized that objects travelling near the speed of light will appear to undergo a peculiar skewing or rotation. This effect has come to be called the Terrell rotation or Penrose–Terrell rotation.

Penrose is well known for his 1974 discovery of Penrose tilings, which are formed from two tiles that can only tile the plane nonperiodically, and are the first tilings to exhibit fivefold rotational symmetry. Penrose developed these ideas based on the article ''Deux types fondamentaux de distribution statistique'' (1938; an English translation ''Two Basic Types of Statistical Distribution'') by Czech geographer, demographer and statistician Jaromír Korčák. In 1984, such patterns were observed in the arrangement of atoms in quasicrystals. Another noteworthy contribution is his 1971 invention of spin networks, which later came to form the geometry of spacetime in loop quantum gravity. He was influential in popularizing what are commonly known as Penrose diagrams (causal diagrams). In 2004 Penrose released ''The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe'', a 1,099-page book aimed at giving a comprehensive guide to the laws of physics. He has proposed a novel interpretation of quantum mechanics. In 2010, Penrose reported possible evidence, based on concentric circles found in WMAP data of the CMB sky, of an earlier universe existing before the Big Bang of our own present universe.

Penrose is the Francis and Helen Pentz Distinguished (visiting) Professor of Physics and Mathematics at Pennsylvania State University. Penrose is married to Vanessa Thomas, with whom he has one child. He has three sons from a previous marriage to American Joan Isabel Wedge, whom he married in 1959.

Physics and consciousness

Penrose has written controversial books on the connection between fundamental physics and human (or animal) consciousness. In ''The Emperor's New Mind'' (1989), he argues that known laws of physics are inadequate to explain the phenomenon of consciousness. Penrose proposes the characteristics this new physics may have and specifies the requirements for a bridge between classical and quantum mechanics (what he calls ''correct quantum gravity''). He claims that the present computer is unable to have intelligence because it is an algorithmically deterministic system. He argues against the viewpoint that the rational processes of the mind are completely algorithmic and can thus be duplicated by a sufficiently complex computer. This contrasts with supporters of strong artificial intelligence, who contend that thought can be simulated algorithmically. He bases this on claims that consciousness transcends formal logic because things such as the insolubility of the halting problem and Gödel's incompleteness theorem prevent an algorithmically based system of logic from reproducing such traits of human intelligence as mathematical insight. These claims were originally espoused by the philosopher John Lucas of Merton College, Oxford. The Penrose/Lucas argument about the implications of Gödel's incompleteness theorem for computational theories of human intelligence has been widely criticized by mathematicians, computer scientists and philosophers, and the consensus among experts in these fields seems to be that the argument fails, though different authors may choose different aspects of the argument to attack.

Penrose uses a variant of Turing's halting theorem to demonstrate that a system can be deterministic without being algorithmic. (E.g., imagine a system with only two states, ON and OFF. If the system's state is ON if a given Turing machine halts, and OFF if the Turing machine does not halt, then the system's state is completely determined by the Turing machine, however there is no algorithmic way to determine whether the Turing machine stops.) Penrose believes that such deterministic non-algorithmic processes may come in play in the quantum mechanical wave function reduction, and may be harnessed by the brain.

In 1994, Penrose followed up ''The Emperor's New Mind'' with ''Shadows of the Mind'', and in 1997 with ''The Large, the Small and the Human Mind'', further updating and expanding his theories. Marvin Minsky, a leading proponent of artificial intelligence, responded that Penrose "tries to show, in chapter after chapter, that human thought cannot be based on any known scientific principle." In contrast, Minsky argues that humans are, in fact, machines, whose functioning, although complex, is fully explainable by current physics. Minsky maintains that "one can carry that quest [for scientific explanation] too far by only seeking new basic principles instead of attacking the real detail. This is what I see in Penrose's quest for a new basic principle of physics that will account for consciousness."

Penrose and Stuart Hameroff have speculated that consciousness is the result of quantum gravity effects in microtubules, which they dubbed Orch-OR (orchestrated objective reduction). But Max Tegmark, in a paper in ''Physical Review E'', calculated that the time scale of neuron firing and excitations in microtubules is slower than the decoherence time by a factor of at least 10,000,000,000. The reception of the paper is summed up by this statement in Tegmark's support: "Physicists outside the fray, such as IBM's John A. Smolin, say the calculations confirm what they had suspected all along. 'We're not working with a brain that's near absolute zero. It's reasonably unlikely that the brain evolved quantum behavior'". Tegmark's paper has been widely cited by critics of the Penrose–Hameroff position. It has been claimed by Hameroff to be based on a number of incorrect assumptions (see linked paper below from Hameroff, Scott Hagan and Jack Tuszyński), but Tegmark in turn has argued that the critique is invalid (see rejoinder link below). In particular, Hameroff points out the peculiarity that Tegmark's formula for the decoherence time includes a factor of $T^2$ in the numerator, meaning that higher temperatures would lead to longer decoherence times. Tegmark's rejoinder keeps the factor of $T^2$ for the decoherence time.

Phillip Tetlow, although himself supportive of Penrose's views, acknowledges that Penrose's ideas about the human thought process are not widely accepted in scientific circles, citing Minsky's criticisms and quoting science journalist Charles Seife's description of Penrose as "one of a handful of scientists" who believe that the nature of consciousness suggests a quantum process.

In spite of the many critics, new experimental results of imaging neuronal spikes and spike directivity data suggest a complex process of computation in neurons that may include electrical interactions on the quantum level and reject naive spike timing models of neural coding.

Religious views

Penrose does not hold to any religious doctrine, and refers to himself as an atheist. In the film ''A Brief History of Time'', he said, "I think I would say that the universe has a purpose, it's not somehow just there by chance ... some people, I think, take the view that the universe is just there and it runs along–it's a bit like it just sort of computes, and we happen somehow by accident to find ourselves in this thing. But I don't think that's a very fruitful or helpful way of looking at the universe, I think that there is something much deeper about it." Penrose is a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association.

Awards and honours

Penrose has been awarded many prizes for his contributions to science. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1972. In 1975, Stephen Hawking and Penrose were jointly awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1985, he was awarded the Royal Society Royal Medal. Along with Stephen Hawking, he was awarded the prestigious Wolf Foundation Prize for Physics in 1988. In 1989 he was awarded the Dirac Medal and Prize of the British Institute of Physics. In 1990 Penrose was awarded the Albert Einstein Medal for outstanding work related to the work of Albert Einstein by the Albert Einstein Society. In 1991, he was awarded the Naylor Prize of the London Mathematical Society. From 1992 to 1995 he served as President of the International Society on General Relativity and Gravitation. In 1994, Penrose was knighted for services to science. In 1998, he was elected Foreign Associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 2000 he was appointed to the Order of Merit. In 2004 he was awarded the De Morgan Medal for his wide and original contributions to mathematical physics. To quote the citation from the London Mathematical Society: :''His deep work on General Relativity has been a major factor in our understanding of black holes. His development of Twistor Theory has produced a beautiful and productive approach to the classical equations of mathematical physics. His tilings of the plane underlie the newly discovered quasi-crystals.'' In 2005 Penrose was awarded an honorary doctorate (Honoris Causa) by Warsaw University and Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium), and in 2006 by the University of York. In 2008 Penrose was awarded the Copley Medal. He is also a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association and one of the patrons of the Oxford University Scientific Society.

Works

''Techniques of Differential Topology in Relativity'' (1972, ISBN 0-89871-005-7)

''Spinors and Space-Time: Volume 1, Two-Spinor Calculus and Relativistic Fields'' (with Wolfgang Rindler, 1987) ISBN 0-521-33707-0 (paperback)

''Spinors and Space-Time: Volume 2, Spinor and Twistor Methods in Space-Time Geometry'' (with Wolfgang Rindler, 1988) (reprint), ISBN 0-521-34786-6 (paperback)

''The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and The Laws of Physics'' (1989, ISBN 0-14-014534-6 (paperback); it received the Rhone-Poulenc science book prize in 1990)

''Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness'' (1994, ISBN 0-19-853978-9 (hardback))

''The Nature of Space and Time'' (with Stephen Hawking, 1996, ISBN 0-691-03791-4 (hardback), ISBN 0-691-05084-8 (paperback))

''The Large, the Small, and the Human Mind'' (with Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, and Stephen Hawking, 1997, ISBN 0-521-56330-5 (hardback), ISBN 0-521-65538-2 (paperback), Canto edition: ISBN 0-521-78572-3)

''White Mars or, The Mind Set Free'' (with Brian W. Aldiss, 1999, ISBN 978-0-316-85243-2 (hardback))

''The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe'' (2004, ISBN 0-224-04447-8 (hardcover), ISBN 0-09-944068-7 (paperback))

''Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe'' (Bodley Head (23 Sep 2010) ISBN 978-0-224-08036-1)

Penrose also wrote forewords to ''Quantum Aspects of Life'' and Zee's book ''Fearful Symmetry''.

See also

Conformal Cyclic Cosmology

Orch-OR

''Quantum Aspects of Life'' (book)

Illumination problem

References

Further reading

Ferguson, Kitty (1991). ''Stephen Hawking: Quest For A Theory of Everything''. Franklin Watts. ISBN 0-553-29895-X.

; see ''Box 34.2''.

External links

Dangerous Knowledge – Penrose was one of the principal interviewees in a BBC documentary about the mathematics of infinity directed by David Malone

Penrose's new theory "Aeons Before the Big Bang?":

*Original 2005 lecture: "Before the Big Bang? A new perspective on the Weyl curvature hypothesis" (Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Cambridge, Nov 11, 2005).

*Original publication: "Before the Big Bang: an outrageous new perspective and its implications for particle physics". ''Proceedings of EPAC 2006''. Edinburgh. 2759–2762 (cf. also Hill, C.D. & Nurowski, P. (2007) "On Penrose's 'Before the Big Bang' ideas". Ithaca)

* Revised 2009 lecture: "Aeons Before the Big Bang?" (Georgia Institute of Technology, Center for Relativistic Astrophysics)

* BBC interview on the new theory

Roger Penrose on The Forum

Penrose on sidestepping reason

Shaking Up Foundations of Math: Roger Penrose on Kurt Gödel's Groundbreaking Work

Hilary Putnam's review of Penrose's 'Shadows of the Mind' claiming that Penrose's use of Godel's Incompleteness Theorem is fallacious

*Beyond the Doubting of a Shadow: A Reply to Commentaries on Shadows of the Mind

Penrose Tiling found in Islamic Architecture

Two theories for the formation of quasicrystals resembling Penrose tilings

Tegmark, Max. 2000. "The importance of quantum decoherence in brain processes". ''Physical Review E''. vol 61. pp. 4194–4206.

*"Biological feasibility of quantum states in the brain" – (a disputation of Tegmark's result by Hagan, Hameroff, and Tuszyński)

**Tegmarks's rejoinder to Hagan ''et al.''

"Toilet Paper Plagiarism" – D. Trull about Penrose's lawsuit concerning the use of his Penrose tilings on toilet paper

Roger Penrose: A Knight on the tiles (Plus magazine)

Penrose's Gifford Lecture biography

Quantum-Mind

Audio: Roger Penrose in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion show

''The Forum''

Roger Penrose speaking about Hawking's new book on Premier Christian Radio

Category:English academics Category:English mathematicians Category:Consciousness researchers and theorists Category:Cosmologists Category:Quantum physicists Category:Relativists Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:English humanists Category:English science writers Category:Albert Einstein Medal recipients Category:People from Colchester Category:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Category:Alumni of University College London Category:People associated with University College London Category:Academics of Birkbeck, University of London Category:Fellows of Wadham College, Oxford Category:Members of the Order of Merit Category:Wolf Prize in Physics laureates Category:Adams Prize recipients Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Pennsylvania State University faculty Category:Old Gowers Category:Philosophers of science Category:Academics of King's College London Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal Category:Royal Medal winners Category:Quantum mind Category:1931 births Category:Living people Category:Mathematical physicists Category:Gifford Lecturers Category:Professors of Gresham College Category:English atheists

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